Concepts

Indirect effects of predators on lower trophic levels mediated through changes in intermediate consumer behavior or abundance

Behavioral, physiological, and life-history changes that reduce the risk of predation but have associated energetic or fitness costs to prey individuals and populations

The modification of environments by organisms in ways that influence resource availability for other species, exemplified by beaver dam construction creating pond habitats.

Taxa that are significantly associated with particular habitat conditions and can be used to assess ecosystem state or restoration success

Chemical cues released by predators that benefit prey by providing information about predator presence

The process by which non-native species become established and spread in new environments