Concepts

Mutually beneficial herbivore-predator associations where sap-feeding insects provide honeydew food for ants in exchange for protection against predators

Positive species interactions such as nurse plant effects by cushion-forming species that increase reproductive success for neighboring plants

Interactions involving three species or groups, such as soil microbes, plants, and pollinators

Distribution of plant growth and resources between aboveground (shoots) and belowground (roots) structures

The formation of predictive relationships between contingent stimuli in the environment

Initial colonization phase when winged aphids establish new colonies on host plants